The Capital Punishment Sentencing Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

The Capital Punishment Sentencing - Case Study Example Sanity evaluation will also be performed in order to assess and check the past history of Mr. Fryer. A possible reevaluation of other factors including assessing the risk of re-offending will also be analyzed. This evaluation will be done in order to contemplate upon the idea of whether if the offender is not punished, will he be able to repeat any offense or not. Mitigating and aggravating circumstances and factors play the critical role in deciding about whether capital punishment should be awarded to an offender or not. Jurors will have to take into account these factors in determining the sentence of capital punishment. Jury often has to take into consideration the balancing act between the aggravating and mitigating factors when deciding about capital murder cases. It is, however, critical to note that both the mitigating and aggravating factors need to be considered exclusively in capital punishment cases. (Rogers, 1997) Aggravating factors are generally the factors which are duly supported by the evidence and point towards circumstances which can help the jury to make the harshest decision. Mitigating factors, however, points towards circumstances which are particular to defendant’s character and can also outline the circumstances under which the crime took place. Mitigating factors can force the jury to decide upon lesser punishment considering the fact that mitigating factors may help the defendant. In this case, considering the overall mental and psychological condition of Mr. Fryer, his mitigating factors may weigh more with respect to his committing of murder. It is also critical to note that each jury member may view both the factors differently. However, from the point of view of forensic psychology, the mitigating factors especially may play important role in shaping the overall opinion because Mr. Fryer was clearly going through a medical condition which required his extensive policing and  support.

Assignment 4 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

4 - Assignment Example It allows the viewer to visualize the world with time consciousness and realization. Baroque style represents have dramatic and emotional values. The arts depict difference in time at particular periods of artistry. Besides, the arts have emotional meaning and dramatic nature. Impressionism art influences viewers’ attitude towards images and the environment. The art convinces viewers to see landscape or the world a beautiful and supportive surrounding. As viewers’ imagines being in the same world as depicted by the art, their thinking and manner of visualizing the world substantial changes. Consequently, they become part of the painting. Moreover, impressionism instils sense of reality into the viewers’ minds. Romanticism enables the viewer to visualize partners in emotional and affectionate manner. It presents the viewers with an opportunity to understand romantic issues and develop an appropriate mind to deal with anticipated complications. Romanticism style reflects modern values bestowed in love affairs including emotions and marriage

Employment of Special Forces in Conventional Operations

Employment of Special Forces in Conventional Operations INTRODUCTION General 1. The history of warfare is replete with instances of a band of elite troops taking on a numerically superior force and using surprise to achieve relative superiority to emerge victorious. In a world where the nature of threat is becoming increasingly complex encompasses the entire spectrum of warfare, Special Forces hold their own importance. These highly trained motivated troops with sophisticated weapons equipment are capable of operating in all types of terrain weather conditions to seek a favourable response to sensitive situations. 2. In an era of modern warfare where all dimensions of force, time, space even virtual space or cyberspace are likely to be exploited to gain moral or physical ascendancy over the adversary, the role of the Special Forces becomes very important. It is therefore incumbent on any nation to have these forces fully geared up to confidently take up the challenges of the modern battlefield environment with a sound backing of tried tested doctrines employment concepts. Hypothesis 3. Given the changing face of warfare the aspirations of our nation to be a global player, there is a requirement of carrying out organisational doctrinal changes to our Special Forces for undertaking conventional operations in the future. Statement of the Problem 4. It seems quite obvious that there indeed is a need for having a re-look at the way the Special Forces are employed in present context of operations. Therefore, the problem can be stated as What are the organisational doctrinal changes required for effective employment of the Special Forces in conventional operations in the future? Justification of the Study 5. Recent wars such as those in Kosovo or Iraq have amply proved that no single instrument of war wins a campaign or successfully executes a mission. As conflicts become more complex and diverse, those involved with planning and executing campaigns and missions have greater challenges at hand[i]. 6. The Special Forces, by virtue of their superior combat training specialised weapons equipment, are a force multiplier unit available not only to a tactical commander to gain an upper hand vis-a-vis the adversary in a tactical battle, but also to a strategic force commander due to their ability to strike at the decisive points of the enemy. Special Forces are also a very effective force available to the commander in sub conventional operations where the very nature of the latter is based on small team concept. 7. On a larger canvas, as part of our growing influence in world matters our expanding interests in the Asian region, it may be necessary in future to station own Special Forces in some of the nations for safeguarding of our foreign assets as well as to improve our capability to react to an Out of Area contingency. 8. It is therefore mandatory to study as to what are the fundamental changes, if any, which are required so that our Special Forces are able to effectively execute the multifarious tasks expected out them in the future battlefield. Scope 9. The scope of the study encompasses a brief overview of the organization structure of the special operations forces of a few major developing developed countries followed by an assessment of the present organisation concept of employing our special forces. The study will thereafter analyse the likely future world order the spectrum of conflicts in the future analyse the changes in present organisation concept of employment to meet challenges of conventional operations in the future. 10. The study does not deliberate upon the specific operations of the Special Forces. However, an operation or part thereof may be included in a chapter to bring out certain lessons having a bearing on the topic. 11. The study will be carried out in the following manner:- (a) Chapter I : Overview of the Special Forces of various nations. (b) Chapter II : Present organisation concept of employment of Indias Special Forces. (c) Chapter III : Future world order spectrum of conflict. (c) Chapter IV : Changes in present organisation concept of employment to meet challenges of conventional operations in the future. (d) Conclusion. i Air Power Special Operations: AIR POWER Journal Vol. 2 No. 2 SUMMER 2005 (Apr-Jun) 102 pp 91-93 . CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE SP ECIAL FORCES OF VARIOUS NATIONS Intro duction 1. The evolution of the SF has been a continuous process the world over since the times of the Vikings the Mongols. Every age has produced a special soldier, be it the Greek Hoplite, the English Archer, Chhatrapati Shivaji of India, the Green Beret of the USA the Paratrooper Regiment of India. 2. The process of evolution of the SF gathered pace during after the World War II. Today, almost all nations with a standing army have the Special Operations Forces on their strength. In order to derive lessons about the role employment of the Indian Special Forces, it is therefore pertinent to study the organisational employment models of some of the modern Special forces of various nations of the world. SEC – 1: SPECIAL AIR SERVICE ( SAS) OF UK 3. In the post war western world, the UK has been the leading nation in evolving SF organisations, specialised equipment, training employment doctrines. 4. Organisation . The SAS was raised in the 1950s has evolved into a balanced, well trained force headed by the Director, Special Forces Group. The Director reports directly to Whitehall the Chief of Defence Staff. Under him, he has the following forces[ii]:- (a) 21st, 22nd 23rd SAS Regiments. (b) Special Boat Section (SBS). (c) 14th Intelligence Group. Note . Of these, the 22nd SAS is the only active regiment while the other two are Territorial Army SAS units. 5. The Royal Air Force (RAF) has a dedicated squadron which includes fixed rotary wing aircrafts for the operations in support of the SAS. 6. The primary mission of the SAS has been to undertake unconventional military operations in a conventional war. The SAS has performed this mission in various conflicts like the Falklands War the Gulf War with remarkable degree of success. Another task which the SAS was assigned in the near past was that of incident response operations dealing with intervention in hijack hostage situations. The SAS earned a niche for themselves by providing quality training advisory teams to a large number of Middle Eastern African nations. 7. Over the years, the SAS has developed into a highly professional force with clearly defined missions well equipped, highly trained motivated personnel to execute them. SEC 2: SPECIAL OPERATIONS FORCES (SOF) OF THE USA 6. The USA has the most elaborate well organised SF establishment in the world. It is also one of the largest with an overall strength of over 45,000 personnel a budget of over $ 4 bn. 7. The US adopts a systems approach to respond to problems which shows their bureaucracy in a good light demonstrates the clarity of thought determination of their leadership. 8. The US SOF has a dual role in todays context. They are seen as the nations penetration strike force as well as warrior diplomats capable of influencing, advising, training conducting operations with foreign forces, officials population. 9. The Posture Statement mandates the SOF to be able to undertake the following types of missions:- (a) Counter Proliferation. (b) Counter Terrorism. (c) Foreign International Defence. (d) Special Reconnaissance. (e) Direct Action. (f) Psychological Operations. (g) Civil Affairs. (h) Unconventional Warfare. (j) Information Operations. 10. As can be seen, the SOF of the US has been created to undertake a plethora of operations. More importantly, they have also been tasked to carry out operations like Civil Affairs, Psychological Operations Information Operations which have assumed tremendous importance in todays conflicts. Organisation 11. The SOF has an elaborate joint services organisational structure headed by a four star General who reports directly to the Joint Chiefs of Staff the National Command Authority. The detailed organisation of the SOF is as shown at Appendix A[iii]. 12. Each of the unified theatre commands has a separate Special Operations Command (SOC) to meet their special requirements. The Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) is a joint headquarters that deals with organisational training aspects is designed to study special operations requirements techniques, ensure interoperability equipment standardisation, plan conduct joint special operations exercises training. SEC- 3 : SPECIAL OPERATIONS FORCES OF CHINA 11. The SOF of China is modelled upon the Russian SOF pattern. Chinese forces, although adept at guerrilla warfare special missions, did not have a dedicated Special Forces component until the early 1990s when China underwent a doctrinal change from peoples war towards fighting a local war under high-tech conditions[iv]. 12. All the seven mil regions in China have a dedicated SOF component capable of deploying upto a regiment sized force. As its strategic reserve, the Peoples Liberation Army (PLA) also has the 51st Airborne Division equipped with the BMD3 Paratrooper vehicles. The division has the capability to conduct airborne operations in a radius of upto 900 kms is likely to be employed for sabotage missions, disruption of command control structures etc. 13. PLA Airborne Corps plays a critical role in special operations scenario. It forms part of the PLAs strategic reserve rapid reaction forces. Airborne operations in the context of China include paratroops operations, air transport operations, heliborne operations special operations. The division inventory of the AB Corps is similar to that of an infantry division except for the heavy weaponry like tanks, heavy artillery anti-aircraft weapons. 14. The PLA Navy (PLAN) also has several elite units specialised in underwater special operations is known as the Amphibious Reconnaissance Groups. These are similar to the SBS of UK or the SEALs of the USA. 15. The SOFs Taiwan-focused training over the years has made them highly proficient at locating and destroying transportation nodes, logistics depots, and conducting reconnaissance missions. With the growing threat of terrorism on its Western borders, the SOF has also been strengthened in the fields of counter-terrorism, unconventional combat, as well as direct attack missions. 16. Although a conflict with China over disputed territory is by no means imminent, it would be wise for Indian policy makers and defence analysts to take note of the SOFs relatively newly acquired strengths, especially its ability to locate and destroy transportation nodes and logistics depots. In the event of hostilities, a PLA first strike would likely involve air strikes followed by a ground incursion and in order for this to occur, the SOF would need to create ground conditions that would be conducive to such operations. India should remain vigilant along its disputed border with China and should maximise any opportunity that it has to observe Taiwan-focused PLA training[v]. 17. Major indicators of the role importance of the SOF suggest the following:- (a) The evolution development of the SOF in China display both traditional modern principles of special operations. (b) The Chinese have emphasised on specialised warfare techniques since the 1990s after a deep study analysis of Gulf War the ongoing War on Terror. (c) The role of the SF in anti-terror operations is the new element that has been added to the overall strategy in the recent time. (d) Improvement in specific areas like sea-borne operations, EW IW suggest that these could be extensively employed in future regional conflicts with India etc. (e) Efforts to improve AB operational capabilities indicate its ambitions to gain strategic advantage in the Himalayan Region. SEC- 4: SPECIAL OPERATIONS FORCES OF PAKISTAN 18. The SOF of Pakistan is known as the Special Services Group (SSG). The first unit was formed in the late fifties with an initial strength of 12 companies including a SCUBA company. Post the debacle of 1965 Indo- Pak war, the SSG was reorganised expanded. Two new battalions a HQ were raised. In 1970, the SSG formed an independent combat diver unit by re-designating the old SCUBA Company. An additional company, the ZARAR Company was raised in 1980 as a CT force with the assistance of the British SAS[vi]. 19. The current strength of the SSG is estimated to be upto four battalions of 700 personnel each. The Commander SSG, of the rank of a Brigadier oversees the operations of the SSG. The Group has dedicated air assets earmarked for its employment. Of the four battalions, one battalion is under training at any given time, two are under operational deployment one is deployed for security of vital strategic assets. 20. The missions of the SSG include the following:- (a) Unconventional Warfare. (b) Long-range reconnaissance intelligence gathering. (c) Riverine operations. (d) CT. (e) Tactical Assaults. (f) Target designations for air force artillery. (g) Protection of vulnerable points. 21. The SSG is a battle- hardened force has grown in strength experience since the debacle of 1965. It has gained some really worthy experience during its recent employment in the operations against the Taliban al-Qaeda in NWFP Swat valley. ii Brigadier Deepak Sinha: Beyond the Bayonet Indian Special Operations Forces in the 21st Century. Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi. iii Ibid pp 60-67. iv Ibid pp 115-116. v Lieutenant General Vijay Oberoi, PVSM, AVSM, VSM: Approach Paper for Seminar on Doctrine, Structure Employment of Special Forces Across the Spectrum of Conflict in Indian Context (Centre of Land Warfare Studies, New Delhi, Sep 2005). vi Ibid pp 97-101, pg 104. CHAPTER II PRESENT ORGANISATION CONCEPT OF EMPLOYMENT OF INDIAS SPECIAL FORCES. Introduction 1. The employment of specialised guerrilla forces in Indian context dates back to the ancient ages. However, in the recent history it can be traced to the rule of the Maratha warrior, Chhatrapati Shivaji. Shivaji employed his small forces to infiltrate into enemies defences thereby turning them causing panic large scale casualties. 2. The modern SOF in India was raised consequent to the directions of Sir Winston Churchill which led to the raising of the 50 Independent Parachute Brigade in 1941. This brigade was employed in the Battle of Shangsak in an airborne operation in the WW II in the Burma Theatre. The 50 Independent Parachute Brigade is the oldest formation in the world to have continuously remained in airborne role. 3. Today, the Indian SOF comprises of the Parachute the Parachute Special Forces Battalions, the National Security Guards (NSG), the Marine Commandos (MARCOS) the Special Frontier Force (SFF). The organisation employment of these forces is discussed in the following chapters. Concept of Emp loyment of Special Forces 4. In war, Special Forces are an invaluable adjunct to conventional forces. Selectively employed, they have a force multiplier effect. In situations short of declared war, they are capable of sophisticated, specialized and measured response in complex politico-military situations where the application of conventional military forces is inappropriate because it could trigger an escalating response. 5. In order to fulfill the role and execute missions – Special Forces should have the capacity to operate in all kinds of terrain in the areas of interest and exploit adverse weather to own advantage. They should be capable of using the medium of land, sea and air for carrying out deep penetration to accomplish the assigned mission, which implies that their organization needs to be an integrated unit to maximize effectiveness. 6. The organization of Special Forces is designed to be cellular with the smallest functional group being a buddy pair. Based on past experiences, it was realized that there was a requirement of distributing danger, provide greater internal resources for psychological and physical backup and a need of varied combat skills namely – demolition, navigation, communication, medical, weapon proficiency and language within the group, have necessitated enlargement of the smallest functional group from a buddy pair to a combat patrol of a four- five men assault squad. Four such squads would be ideal to make a troop for carrying out overt and limited covert military special operations in war and situations short of declared war, either independently or in conjunction on with other special forces of similar nature, in own areas of interest to achieve military and or political objectives in support of military and / or national aims. SEC – 1: THE PARACHUTE BATTALIONS Organisation Employment 7. The Parachute Battalions are the oldest of the SOF in our country. These were formed either by converting the standard infantry battalions into Parachute Battalions or by the integration of the Indian Parachute Battalions post independence. Presently we have five Parachute Battalions of which, three battalions form part of the 50(Independent) Parachute Brigade. These are considered to be the only rapid reaction forces available with the country. 8. The 50(Independent) Parachute Brigade is a brigade group comprising of elements of all arms services[vii]. The Parachute Battalions are organised on lines similar to the regular infantry units. However, they are different from them in terms of their equipment profile. Another significant aspect is their manpower which is purely on the basis of volunteers who are selected after a very tough challenging probation for a period of three months. 9. The Parachute Battalions are organised trained for offensive operations behind enemy lines Out Of Area Contingencies. The Parachute Brigade over the years has been kept as an Army HQ Reserve or employed piecemeal in certain operations. 10. The Parachute Battalions have been employed with a fair degree of success in conventional operations in the past. The Para Brigade was successfully employed against the Portuguese in Goa, as a coy sized task force at Bara Hoti against the Chinese in early 1961 in the Kutch operations in 1965. The most successful operation of the Paras still remains the para drop of a battalion sized force at Tangail. This operation is arguably the one which tilted the balance in Indias favour. As regards failed operations, the most glaring example is that of the failed paradrop at the Jaffna University during Op PAWAN. However, the failure of this operation may not be attributable as much to the Paras as it would be to faulty planning coordination at higher levels. 11. Over the last decade a half, the Parachute Battalions have been employed in Counter Insurgency (CI) operations. Their employment in these operations has been quite successful with almost all battalions having been awarded the Chief of Army Staff Citation. 12. The Parachute Battalions have been employed as a rapid reaction force as a crack force to act upon hard intelligence to destroy terrorist hideouts. They have also been employed in covert role for surveillance pseudo operations. 13. In the recent past, perceptions among certain sections of the defence establishment have led to the crystallisation of the belief that large scale airborne operations are not feasible in the modern context. This has seriously affected the tactical strategic airlift capability. 14. In CI operations, the Parachute Battalions have been employed as regular infantry battalions- although as a tougher version of the latter. Couple this with the high expectations quick results desired from them, we see that the pressure to perform on these battalions is enormous. The fact that despite the above these units have performed exceedingly well is a tribute to their exemplary leadership high standard of training. SEC – 2: MARINE COMMANDOS (MARCOS) History Organisation 15. The evolution of the present day MARCOS dates back to 1986, when the National Security Guards (NSG) was being formed. In response to the requirement of an equivalent force for safeguarding our shore – based off-shore assets, the Indian Marine Special Force was formed in Feb 1987. This force was modelled on the lines of the US Navy SEALS the Royal Navys Special Boat Section. The name was changed from Indian Marine Special Force to the present day Marine Commandos (MARCOS) in 1991[viii]. 16. The present strength of the MARCOS is estimated to be about 2000 personnel[ix]. It is divided into three groups, one each at Mumbai, Kochi Vishakhapatnam. 17. The MARCOS undergo a very rigorous training of two years which includes the Combat Divers Course, the Armys Ghatak Course parachute jumps. Thereafter the personnel are sent to operational groups for on the job training for a year. This includes counter terrorist (CT) operations, storming of oil rigs hostage rescue operations. Employment 18. The CT operations of the MARCOS are executed by the Quick Reaction Sections (QRS) which are upto a platoon size. MARCOS can also be tasked for beach reconnaissance, under water demolitions other operations in support of the amphibious landings. 19. The MARCOS are presently also employed in teams in the JK, where they are primarily deployed along the Dal, Wullar Nageen lakes. Their deployment has led to an effective domination of these water bodies. In the very recent past, the MARCOS were employed during the terrorist attacks in Mumbai on 26 November 2008, wherein the MARCOS teams were heli-landed atop the Hotel Oberoi to eliminate the terrorists. 20. The recent employment of the MARCOS in neutralising the terrorists in Mumbai brought to fore once again the need to have an institutionalised framework for employing the Army Naval SOF in a coordinated manner. There is also a requirement of standardisation of equipment weapons if there has to be any joint operations in any future conflict. There is also a need for enhanced joint training of the army SF the MARCOS as they will surely be employed jointly in any future operation. SEC- 3: NATIONAL SECURITY GUARDS ( NSG) 21. The National Security Guards (NSG) was formed in 1986 under the National Security Guards Act ( Act 47 of 1986) has fast emerged as the elite anti-terror establishment not only in India but in the entire Asian region. The NSG is under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) is mandated to carry out CT, anti-kidnapping, anti-sabotage, anti-hijacking hostage rescue missions[x]. 22. The NSG has approx 7500 which are further sub-divided as under:- (a) The Assault Groups, i.e, 51st 52nd Special Action Groups (SAG). (b) The Support Group. (c) Two Bomb Disposal Units. (d) A Dog Unit. (e) A Communications Group (f) A Transport Group. 23. The other element of the NSG is the Special Ranger Group (SRG) whose task is to isolate the target area where the SAG is to operate. However, these are now responsible for providing close security cover to VVIPs politicians. 24. The Support Group is manned by a mix of army para-military forces personnel includes the NSG Training Centre at Manesar near Gurgaon the Force Headquarters headed by a three star police officer of the IPS Cadre. The operational training aspects are handled by the army while the para-military forces look after the logistics budgeting. 25. The NSG has to its credit a string of successful operations is rightly known as the premier specialist CT organisation in India. The NSG successfully executed Op BLACK THUNDER in the precincts of the Golden Temple in 1984 wherein it was able to neutralise the hardcore militants with minimal collateral damage. The other notable operations include the neutralisation of the killers of Rajiv Gandhi at the Bangalore Airport the intervention at the Akshardham Temple in Gujarat. However, the most recent successful operation of the NSG remains the intervention neutralisation of terrorists at the Hotel Oberoi during the terrorist strikes at Mumbai on 26 November 2008. The NSG on the other hand, received a lot of unwarranted flak for its delayed employment during the IC-814 hijack crisis. As the picture of the exact turn of events is now clearing up, one can confidently say that the NSG should have been the last to be blamed in the matter. 26. However, the NSG is plagued with a number of problems of late. The most serious one is that of the Command Control structure. Although the most important aspects of operational role training are handled by the army, the head of the NSG is still an IPS officer. It is important that the command of such a premier CT organisation be vested with someone with a practical on the job experience of CT operations which naturally is with an army officer. The issue has been raised at the highest possible levels time again, most recently after the Mumbai attacks, but to no avail. It is important for the powers that be to stop the lobbyist attitudes which may eventually jeopardise national security. 27. Another major problem that has been created is due to the diversion of the Special Ranger Group (SRG) for VVIP protection tasks. The original task for which the SRG was raised – to isolate the target area for subsequent operations by SAG – has thus suffered a void. 28. Until before the Mumbai attacks, the SAGs were based in New Delhi operated from there. Post the incident, it was realised that there existed a need for the NSG to have operational bases in major metropolitan cities like Mumbai, Bangalore, Kolkata Hyderabad for rapid response to a terror strike. Accordingly, additional NSG units have been proposed to be raised for these cities. As to where the manpower for these units is likely to come from, especially when the NSG in its present form itself is plagued with a shortage of manpower, is matter of serious concern. SEC-4: SPECIAL FRONTIER FORCE 29. The Special Frontier Force (SFF) was established in 1962 after the debacle in the war with China. The force has six battalions each with six companies. It also has a training establishment known as the Establishment 22 a Parachute Training School. The force comprises of personnel recruited from the border hill tribes Tibetan refugees. The force is officered by Indian Army officers on deputation. The task of the force is to conduct reconnaissance, carry out raids on vital installations direct air artillery strikes in case of hostilities with China[xi]. 30. In addition to the battalions, the force also has a unit known as the Special Group which is manned fully by personnel on deputation from the army[xii]. This group is organised equipped to carry out CT operations. The exact nature of tasks to be performed their likely employment is not very clearly spelt out. This group provided the core on which the first NSG unit was raised. 31. The SFF saw major combat in the 1971 War for the first time when it was employed in the Chittagong Hill Tracts for carrying out cross- border attacks which preceded the war. It also fought some spectacular actions against the 2nd Commando Battalion SSG of Pakistan during the war. 32. Despite the raison de etre, the SFF today is faced with the serious problem of their relevance. The normalisation of Sino-Indian ties the rapid modernisation of the Peoples Liberation Army (PLA) has diminished the possibility of a liberated Tibet. The fact has been accepted even by the Dalai Lama, who now talks of an Autonomous Tibet instead of Free Tibet. All this has led to a drastic reduction in the number of expatriate Tibetans with knowledge of local language, terrain culture. 33. Over a period of time the force has lost its motivated dedicated Khampa fighters have been replaced with second generation Tibetans who have been born brought up in India are consequently unaware of the terrain, local customs traditions of native Tibet – an aspect of prime importance for employment of the force. The army itself has been facing serious manpower problems especially in the officer cadre sending its officers on deputation to these units means taxing the already critical officer- state in the regular regiments/ battalions 34. Another important drawback in the force structure of the SFF is the Special Group. This Group was initially raised as an anti-hijack building intervention force. Subsequent to the raising of the NSG – for which the Group provided the core element – their employment role has been in a limbo. If it was intended to be employed for covert operations, it has not been done for lack of political will despite opportunities for the same having existed for so many years, especially against terror groups operating out of Pakistan. vii Brigadier Deepak Sinha: Beyond the Bayonet Indian Special Operations Forces in the 21st Century. Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi pp 138-139. viiiIbid pp 164-165. ix Ibid pp 167- 171. x Ibid pp 177- 181. xi Ibid pp 177- 181. CHAPTER III FUTURE WOR LD ORDER SPECTRUM OF CONFLICT 1. In order to fully understand the changing dynamics of the world order the creation of new alliances partnerships, especially in the military realm, it is important for us to set for ourselves a realistic period we are looking at. What should such a period be? Five yrs from now? Or should we look at a timeline of 2020? 2. Given the continued progress of our nation in the Asian region as well as its emergence in the global affairs as a vital player in worlds politico-strategic dynamics, it is saner to look at a period of 2020. This is so because it is not only important for a nation to continue on its path of progress, but it is equally important to keep consolidating the gains as the years go by. Therefore, we can safely assume that by 2020, India would definitely be a long way up on the road to being the second most dominant player in the regional matters after of course, China which aims to be the regional superpower in the corresponding period. 3. What then is the strategic operational role of the army in 2020? What are the challenges it will have to face what are we required to attain to complement supplement the ambitions of our nation in this period? These other such questions are briefly discussed in the succeeding paragraphs. SEC 1: WORLD GEO – STRAT EGIC ENVIRONMENT IN 2020 4. The collapse of the Soviet Union in the 1990s the terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre in New York on 11 Sep 2001 were two events which redefined the directions of world politics. While the collapse of the Soviet Union led to a creation of a unipolar world ( which is a reality as on date, despite the emergence of the European Union the rapid economic growth of China), the 9/11 terror attacks brought the War on Terror to the doorstep of the Indian sub-continent. 5. Extrapolation of the current geo-political geo-strategic environment to 2020 will, in all probabilities, give us the following picture[xiii]:- (a) While the US will continue to be the sole

Communications between Parents and Children Essay -- Family Communicat

Healthy family relationships depend on healthy communications there are many ways and times to practice and teach good communication to children. There are many times that without good communication, the parent-child relationship suffers and sometimes ends abruptly. Good communication skills should be taught from birth and continue throughout adulthood. In order to have a good parent/child relationship with open communication, there must also be mutual respect. If there is no respect, the lines of communication will falter. Tom Schwartz states that he knows of â€Å"many cases where children are raised in an atmosphere of dark secrecy about both the matriarchal and patriarchal parts of their families. They grow up with a sense that something must be wrong but fear discussing this with their parents.† (5) Most people have grown up with family secrets, but some secrets can destroy a family. The act of hiding the secret(s) provides an excuse to limit self-disclosure, and reacts negatively on one’s self-esteem. â€Å"Good communication helps keep a family running smoothly and prevents misunderstandings from escalating into conflict or from being buried unresolved.† (Feiden, 68) When these become extremely limited or negative, there is an increased chance of a separation and possible ending of the relationship. The end of the relationship could mean that parent and child no longer talk, or they are forcibly separated for their own health in extreme cases. Unfortunately, â€Å"emotional health can be passed down from generation to generation just as easily as abuse and dysfunction,† (Bloch, 7) making such dysfunctions of communications a continuous process. In cases like this, communication is crucial. The secrets should be shared within the family. ... ...heir lives. Works Cited Bay, Willow, Talking to your Kids in Tough Times, New York: Warner books, 2003 Berenstain, Stan & Jan, What Your Parents Never Told You about Being a Mom or Dad, New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1995 Bloch, Douglas, Positive Self-Talk For Children, New York: Bantam Books, 1993 Children’s Defense Fund. â€Å"The state of America’s children 2008† 2009: 80 Pages. October 30, 2009 . Feiden, Karyn, Raising Responsible Kids, New York: Prentice Hall Press, 1991 Schwartz, PH.D., Allen, â€Å"Family Secrets†, April 25, 2007: 8 pages October 30, 2009, Sturges, Tom, Parking Lot Rules & 75 Other Ideas for Raising Amazing Children, New York: Ballantine Books, 2008

Why do Middle Eastern and North African countries?

Joseph Waweru Why do Middle Eastern and North African countries lack democratic governments? Is it the Arabic language or the Muslim faith? Columbia University scholars, Alfred Stephan and Graeme B. Robertson, seem to have the answers. In regards to Arabism and Islam, the duo classifies nations associated with the former as democratic â€Å"underachievers† and the latter as â€Å"overachievers†. A state’s classification as an overachiever/underachiever is based upon their Gross Domestic Product Per Capita (GDPpc).In addition, they observe political rights on a scale to help them determine which states exhibit â€Å"electoral competitiveness. † They structure their argument into three phases: quantitative, qualitative, and implications of the prior phases’ results. Finally, Stephan and Robertson offer possible solutions and scenarios that must take place in order for the political atmosphere in Arab countries to transform. The data used comes from th e Freedom in the World: The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties by Freedom House and Ted Gurr’s Polity Project.The year 1972 is chosen as the suitable year to compare the data from both sources. Freedom in the World ranks nations on a scale of 1-7 whereas 1 is the highest and 7 is the lowest. Nations that are ranked 3 (and above) are considered â€Å"electoral competitive†. The Polity Project ranks nations from strong autocratic (-10) to strong democratic (+10). Nations that are ranked at least (+4) are classified as â€Å"electoral competitive†. What constitutes as â€Å"electoral competitive? † According to the duo, government positions must be filled through fair elections.Governments like Egypt cannot bar individuals and parties from participating in elections. Secondly, high government positions should be filled with individuals who are elected though fair means, unlike Lebanon, whose executive and parliamentary government is author itarian. In addition, a nation must meet these criteria for at least three years to be considered electorally competitive. They also emphasize that electoral competitiveness is not democracy but a prerequisite for it. The use of â€Å"Arabic† and â€Å"Muslim† interchangeably reflect the common misconception that the two words mean the same; they do not.The former represents regions that speak Arabic and the latter represents regions that practice Islam. Using this template, Stephan and Robertson group their findings into: Arab Muslim, Arab non-Muslim, and non-Arab Muslim-majority. From the onset, we notice that Arab countries have relatively weak political and electoral rights. Only Lebanon, one of the sixteen Arab countries and coincidentally the only Muslim-majority state in this group, had three years of consecutive strong electoral rights. No Arab country had five years of consecutive strong political rights (32).On the contrary, 38% of the thirty non-Arab Muslim countries examined had strong political and electoral rights for three consecutive years while 27% of the same group went for five consecutive years. The likelihood of a non-Arab Muslim country to be â€Å"electoral competitive† was 2000% higher than an Arab Muslim state. This extensive gap reiterates the authors claim that Arab states are associated with the lack of democratic zeal. In the quantitative phase, Stephan and Robertson examine GDPpc. They search for a link between levels of income and political rights.They characterize them as follows: Non-Arab Muslim states whose GDPpc is under $1500 are great electoral overachievers, those that are under $3500 are electorally non-competitive and those that are over $5500 are electorally competitive. There are no electoral underachievers within this group. For Arab Muslim states, there is not a country whose GDPpc is below $3500. In addition, there are neither great electoral achievers nor electoral competitive states. In fact, 44% of the countries in this group are electoral underachievers and their GDPpc is over $5500.They assert that there is no Muslim gap in regards to political rights. The qualitative phase deals with the nature of government. They state that in non-Arab Muslim countries, like Senegal, Turkey, and Niger, powerful incumbents have been voted out of office by constituents. Niger is an interesting case since its GDPpc is equal to that of Yemen, an Arab majority state, yet it’s ranked (+4) and Yemen ranked (-2) on the Polity Project scale. In addition, Arab countries are classified into three groups: complete autocratic states, liberalizing, and those that once showed promise to be democratic.The authors suggest that election bans, coercion, fraud, civil war, and military coups are to blame for the lack of democratic governments in Arab countries. The findings of Stephan and Robertson also seem to counter prior arguments made by other scholars. For example, it is thought that econom ic development leads to democracy because development correlates with greater political participation. The authors disagree with this notion. They compare political participation between India and the United States and conclude that the poor members of the former are more politically involved than those of the latter.They also disagree with the theory that differences in languages and ethnicities within a society are detrimental to democracy. They claim that â€Å"electoral competitive† states actually began with the high levels of ethnolinguistic fragmentation while â€Å"electoral non-competitive† states had low levels. In conclusion, Stephan and Robertson believe the electoral gap is an Arab one, not Muslim. Factors such as their heritage to the Ottoman Empire and their failure to transition from authoritarian government explain the gap.In addition, they believe that if the Arab world recognized each other as legitimate and sovereign nations and if military spending was reduced in favor for domestic improvement, then democracy should form in the region. They believe democracy will be achieved through internal means rather than external. And they are right. Eight years after this essay was written, Arab countries like Libya, Yemen, Tunisia, Egypt, Algeria, and Morocco are becoming democratic mainly due to internal pressures.

Differential Pricing and Segmentation on the International Hotel

Differential pricing and segmentation on the Internet: the case of hotels Rama Yelkur Assistant Professor of Marketing, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, USA Maria Manuela Neveda DaCosta A Professor of Economics, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, USA Hotels, Service industries, Pricing, Segmentation, Loyalty, Internet Keywords Introduction In the 1950s, marketers discovered that, if they gave their customers what they wanted Abstract and did it better than the competition, their In the ever-changing electronic sales grew.With the advent of the Internet, environment of the twenty-first marketers have access to the technology to century, price is one of the key customize products and communicate strategic elements that is often overlooked by firms. The paper directly with smaller target markets. The addresses differential pricing in Internet is now firmly established as a business-to-consumer electronic marketing tool. It serves as an integral part commerce, in particular of the marketing mix, serving as a digital differential pricing for hotel services sold on the Internet. istribution channel as well as an electronic Hotels are able to take advantage storefront. of differential pricing for various When a firm establishes a presence on the segments because the market for Internet, its marketing activities, including hotels can be divided into narrow customer segments. An overview advertising, pricing, and distribution, should of e-commerce and Internet reflect characteristics unique to the medium marketing is provided. The to help consumers realize the value added characteristics of products sold over traditional methods. online and differential pricing are discussed.Pricing policies for onConsumers in the Internet medium are line marketing are examined with more than just passive recipients in the a special emphasis on differential marketing process (Hoffman et al. , 1995). The pricing, customer loyalty and Internet is an interactive medium as opposed segmentation. With the help of secondary data, online pricing to traditional marketing which usually strategies used by hotels on the allows only one-way communication (Peters, Internet are evaluated.Finally, 1998; Sandelands, 1997) from marketer to conclusions are drawn and implications for the hotel industry consumer. re discussed. Many diverse vendors, from florists to manufacturers of durable goods, as well as service providers such as airlines and hotels have rushed to do business on the Internet. In order to effectively market on the World Wide Web (the Web), companies need to evaluate the basic components of the marketing mix: product, price, place, and promotion. In the ever-changing electronic environment of the twenty-first century, firms must identify and sustain competitive advantage in order to survive. Price is one of the key strategic elements that is often overlooked by firms (Yelkur and Herbig, 1997).In the on-line setting, companies have the oppo rtunity to utilize price to build competitive advantage by enhancing customer satisfaction and loyalty by meeting Management Decision 39/4 [2001] 252 ±261 # MCB University Press [ISSN 0025-1747] The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www. emerald-library. com/ft the demands of specific segments which have the potential to improve the firm's profit position. How much impact is the Internet really having on the market mix, especially pricing?Is it changing the approach to pricing or is it merely complementing traditional pricing practices? Our paper addresses differential pricing and segmentation in business-to-consumer electronic commerce, in particular differential pricing for hotel services sold online. The consumer segments in the hotel industry are based on usage, situation, and frequency of use. Hotels are able to take advantage of differential pricing for various segments because the market for hotels can be divided into specific custom er segments (Awh, 1998; Yelkur and Herbig, 1997).The more specific the segment, the easier it is to estimate demand; the knowledge of demand is essential to adopting a differential pricing strategy. This paper is organized as follows: An overview of e-commerce and Internet marketing is provided. The characteristics of products sold online and differential pricing are discussed. Pricing policies for online marketing are examined with a special emphasis on differential pricing. The importance of customer loyalty and segmentation and their relationship to differential pricing on the Internet are emphasized.With the help of secondary data, online pricing strategies used by hotels on the Internet are evaluated. Finally, conclusions are drawn and implications for the hotel industry are discussed. The growth of e-commerce Business conducted over the Internet is commonly referred to as electronic commerce or e-commerce. E-commerce is changing the way firms do business. In 1999, e-commerce t ransactions accounted for over $150 billion in sales and it is predicted that this amount will increase to $3 trillion by the year 2003 (The Economist, 2000). E-commerce [ 252 ]Rama Yelkur and Maria Manuela Neveda A DaCosta Differential pricing and segmentation on the Internet: the case of hotels Management Decision 39/4 [2001] 252 ±261 transactions come in many forms. Table I displays an e-commerce matrix that illustrates the difference among these various types of transactions by giving examples: Business-to-business transactions still account for 80 percent of all e-commerce business but consumer-to-consumer, consumer-to-business, and business-toconsumer (the object of this study) transactions are expected to grow astronomically in the next decade.According to an Internet consulting firm (Forrester Research, as cited in The Economist (2000)), business-to-consumer trade in the USA amounted to about $20 billion in 1999 and could reach $184 billion by 2004, which is about 5 percen t of USA's retail trade. Product characteristics that facilitate Internet marketing Some areas of retailing and commerce may be particularly well suited for the Internet, given certain characteristics (see Table II). For business-to-consumer marketing, as proposed by Peterson et al. 1997), products and services in the context of the Internet can be classified on the basis of: . cost and frequency of purchase; . value proposition; and . differentiability. Products can vary from low cost, frequently purchased goods (ex: coffee), to high-cost, infrequently purchased goods (ex: car). In general, for goods for which purchase fulfillment requires physical delivery in a short time, the Internet is not an appropriate mode of delivery (Peterson et al. , 1997).For an industry such as hotels, where a transaction can be completed without physical delivery of the product and the frequency of purchase is relatively low and the cost is relatively high (when compared with consumables such as coffee ), the Internet is a more efficient medium for firms to use to conduct business. The suitability of the Internet also depends on the tangibility of the product. Internet marketing is practically well suited for certain types of services. For example, it is now widely used for banking and other financial services.When the value proposition is intangible and the frequency of use higher, the greater is the advantage of the Internet as a transaction and distribution medium. The transport and delivery of the goods are an important consideration. Clearly, it is easier to sell lighter goods over the Internet than bulky and heavy ones. Then, there are those that can be delivered electronically like software, music, and certain services like banking, insurance, travel and hotels. The 1999 top-ranking products in the US market in terms of online transactions were computer hardware/ software, travel, financial brokerages, and collectables.In fact, intangible or symbolic information products su ch as airline tickets or hotel reservations gain tangibility on the Internet medium. Internet marketing can result in extreme price competition when products are similar, because other factors that moderate competition (ex: store location) are absent. However, when products and services are capable of significant differentiation, the Internet can serve as a method of segmenting consumers and directing them toward the appropriate product or service, as is the case Characteristics of Internet marketingThe Internet represents an extremely efficient medium for accessing, organizing, and communicating information. As such, the Internet subsumes communication technologies ranging from the written and spoken word to visual images. Internet marketing is one of the newest distribution channels marketers use to reach the customer. It is different from traditional channels in that it is also a communication network. Like all communication networks, the Internet is all about establishing and re inforcing connections between people.The Internet has been growing rapidly in the second half of the 1990s and today it is available in approximately 38 percent of US households (Nielsen Media Research, 2000). No medium including television has reached the 50 million-user mark in four years (Strauss and Frost, 1999). The integration of the Internet as a technological tool as well as a delivery medium with traditional marketing has transformed the processes firms use with which to conduct business. Table I The e-commerce matrix Business Business B2B GM/Ford EDI networks C2B Priceline Accompany Consumer B2C Amazon E*trade C2C EBay QXLConsumer Source: The Economist, 2000 [ 253 ] Rama Yelkur and Maria Manuela Neveda A DaCosta Differential pricing and segmentation on the Internet: the case of hotels Management Decision 39/4 [2001] 252 ±261 in the hotel industry. The â€Å"hotel† product is relatively expensive, infrequently purchased, has an intangible value proposition, and rat es high on differentiation from competing products. As a result, sellers are able to charge a higher price based on the match between the buyer's needs and the nature of the product offering.In a traditional setting, such personalization would turn out to be relatively expensive. Yelkur and Herbig (1997), are explained below: Select a target market The broad target market for a business is already chosen when the product is positioned. The firm needs to divide its broad target market into smaller segments. Differential pricing The model of price discrimination or differential pricing used by Cannon and Morgan (1990) provides an important analytical insight into many discriminatory pricing practices.The prices charged by a firm practicing differential pricing are usually not proportional to the marginal costs incurred in producing the service. When firms adjust their prices according to customer, location or product, they are said to follow the strategy of segmented pricing or differ ential pricing (Strauss and Frost, 1999). It is not unusual for businesses to offer varying prices for consumers by age group, for example, senior citizen discounts. In addition, customers can be differentiated based on customer type, for example, the business customer versus the individual customer.Businesses can also offer different prices for products based on location; for example, the pricing of a hotel room in San Francisco, California, would be different from a similar room in Phoenix, Arizona. Finally, firms frequently price products differently not necessarily based on cost, but rather on the willingness to pay. For example, firstclass airline tickets are always priced much higher than economy fares (Strauss and Frost, 1999). In summary, segmented pricing can be based on three major factors: customer type, location of product or service, and product or service offering.It is also possible to customize prices based on the profile provided by the customer, as is the case for hotel services sold online. The five steps a firm must take to achieve a differential pricing policy, as illustrated by The essence of any customer service strategy is to segment the customer to be served. It is important to differentiate between market segmentation and customer service segmentation. Customer service segments differ from traditional market segments in significant ways. Customer service segments tend to be narrower (Davidow and Uttal, as cited in Yelkur and Herbig (1997).In addition, the narrower the segments, the more homogeneous they tend to be, making it easier to estimate consumer demand for each segment. Another factor that cannot be overlooked is the usage situation. Segmentation needs to take into account the what, where, how and why of demand. As demand is a result of the interaction of a person with the environment, a segmentation perspective that includes both the person and the situation is needed to explain the demand. In service industries such as hotels , distinct lines can be drawn, say, to divide different types of customers such as the vacationer or the business traveler.The usage situation thus gives the firm a guideline for customer service segmentation. Once customer segments are identified, the next step is to estimate the demand for each of these segments. Divide the target market into smaller customer service segments Steps for differential pricing Table II Product characteristics matrix for hotels Cost and frequency of purchase Relatively high cost Infrequently purchased Value proposition Intangible Service-related good Degree of differentiation Significant differentiation possible Source: Based on the Peterson et al. (1997) model [ 254 ]Customer demand can be estimated by a method suggested by Oren et al. (1984), which proposes that there are many customers in a target market, each with different characteristics summarized in an index, say, t, indicating customer type (based on the customer service type). Assuming that t here is a continuum of types with indices in the interval t0 t t1. The fraction of the population whose types are less than an index t is given by a distribution function H(t) (which forms the customer segment as described in the previous section) that is assumed to be continuous and strictly increasing. It implifies notation to let s = H(t) be this fraction so that t = H(s), and s is uniformly distributed on the interval 0 s 1. One can use s to denote a customer rank or customer type. Although this method is more suited to physical goods markets, it can be applied to service markets as well. In Estimate demand for each customer segment Rama Yelkur and Maria Manuela Neveda A DaCosta Differential pricing and segmentation on the Internet: the case of hotels Management Decision 39/4 [2001] 252 ±261 practice such estimations should be substantiated with both historical and estimated market data.Reservation price indicates the maximum amount a customer is willing to pay for a good or s ervice (Guiltinan, 1987). The reservation price of the customer indicates her willingness to pay and is the underlying benchmark for setting different prices for different customer segments. Classifying customers by the value they place on the service provides a rough estimate of the cost of satisfying them as well as the price they are willing to pay. Firms operating in service industries can use differential pricing only if they can estimate the distributions of the reservation prices.The amount by which the reservation price exceeds the actual price is the consumer surplus. The reservation price (Rp) would therefore depend on the value the customer places on the service (V) and the number of different firms offering the service (N). That is, Rp = f(V,N). The greater the number of firms offering the service, the lower will be the reservation price of the consumer. Whereas, if the customer has only a limited number of choices (substitutes), then her reservation price becomes higher ; that is her willingness to pay increases (her demand becomes more inelastic).The final price is determined for each customer segment based on customer type, location and product/service offering. Thus, though there is no change in marginal cost, different prices are charged depending on the type of customer segment and the reservation prices for each segment. Among the goods and services that are sold online, hotel services appear to be particularly well suited for differential pricing because of the ease of segmenting customers at a relatively low marginal cost. Determine reservation prices (which indicate willingness to pay) for each segmentRosen and Howard (2000) provides examples of improved transaction efficiency for service industries such as banking, travel, and stock brokerage. Table III illustrates the reduction in transaction costs for service firms because of delivery via the Internet. Traditional pricing strategies such as differential pricing, discussed in the previou s section, are particularly well suited to ecommerce. We will focus primarily on differential pricing for online services, also referred to as segmented pricing.A new and unique method of pricing called dynamic pricing, which is easily facilitated by the electronic medium, enhances differential pricing for online services. The Internet enables marketing managers to update product databases instantly and continuously, as new product features are developed and price adjustments are made (Strauss and Frost, 1999). Dynamic pricing allows Internet customers to receive up-todate price information on demand from product databases. This information changes with time and by user.For example business customers may receive different prices than individual customers. Business customers may receive different price information based on volume ordered. Thus, dynamic pricing allows further customization by target customer and further enhances the traditional segmented or differential pricing in the online environment. Determine prices for each segment Online presence of hotels Hotel services seem to be particularly suited to sale on the Internet. They can be delivered online and, once in place, benefit from tremendous economies of scale and scope.One firm can design a Web site and then just differentiate from locale to locale and from hotel to hotel at very low cost. In fact, the marginal cost of adding one more line to the Web site or another site for a new hotel is practically negligible. Despite these advantages, the hotel industry seems to have been relatively slow at â€Å"going digital† and using the Internet as a marketing tool. Hotel transactions in the USA account for less than 5 percent of the US total volume of e-business transactions. However, there is some indication that this is likely to increase significantly in the near future.Table IV shows that online travel business transactions increased from $2. 2 billion in 1998 to $6. 5 billion in 1999, a 200 pe rcent increase. Furthermore, when we disaggregate the total online travel bookings by travel product, it is interesting to note that lodging Pricing policies on the Internet E-commerce is likely to have a significant impact on pricing, as it creates a more competitive environment in which firms may sell. The Internet is able to generate different pricing mechanisms, particularly by allowing customers to make instant price and product comparisons.The Internet offers significant opportunity for reducing operating costs, particularly for service firms (Rosen and Howard, 2000). A study by Andersen Consulting (as cited in [ 255 ] Rama Yelkur and Maria Manuela Neveda A DaCosta Differential pricing and segmentation on the Internet: the case of hotels Management Decision 39/4 [2001] 252 ±261 increased from 13 percent in 1998 to 16 percent in 1999, a trend that is likely to continue. Table IV Total online travel bookings by travel product 1998 $2. 2 billion market (%) Air Lodging Car Cruis e/tour 80 13 7

Internet Business and E-Retail essays

Internet Business and E-Retail essays Internet Business and E-Retail: A New Medium for a New Millennium? The Internet is no longer the sole domain of the nerd and the physics professor. Increasing use of the Internet in schools and the integration of Internet protocols into existing hardware (i.e. TV, mobile phones, and fridges) has widened the breadth and scope of Internet user. Britain currently has approximate. 21 million members of its population online and 14 million (30%) access the net at least once a month. These figures are reflected across Europe and significantly improved upon in the Scandinavian countries. The total projected number of Internet users by 2003 is 500 Million (approximately 1/12 of the world population) with Jupiter research's European online retail report estimating 85 million European buyers spending around 64.4 Billion Euros by 2005. European users still lag behind their US counterparts in terms of time spent on the net. US users average 719 mins/mth while this was only 308 mins/mth in Europe. Germany leads the way with its users at 367 mins/mth in the UK t he figure is 276 mins/mth. It is clear that the Internet user is becoming more aware of the technical aspects of the Internet and that initial fears about the reluctance of consumers to embrace the net have been exaggerated. The Internet market is many things. It is the advertisers, the people who use the computers, the products being sold and the technology that allows it to work. It is diverse, worldwide and easily accessible to anybody with a P.C. It provides both the advertisers and the users with ways to customise the way that advertising reaches its target audience. The advertisers can obtain a lot of data about individuals who are using particular websites, looking at certain products etc. This allows the advertiser to accumulate useful information, and to target their products and the way they advertise their products very specifically at the people who are going to buy them...